Risk factors:
(1) low urine volumes, with a concentrated and alkaline urine
(2) urinary tract infection
(3) low urinary citrate excretion
(4) presence of crystals (crystalluria) in a fresh urine samples at 37°C
(5) elevated urine calcium excretion, often associated with hypercalcemia
(6) elevated urinary uric acid excretion
(7) renal tubular acidosis
Other findings associated with stone formation:
(1) urinary excretion of magnesium at the lower limit of normal
(2) urinary excretion of phosphate at the lower limit of normal
Therapeutic interventions to reduce stone formation:
(1) maintain a high fluid intake to promote urine output
(2) suppression of urinary tract infections
(3) administration of potassium citrate
